![Robert Snowden BSc York PhD Cantab](https://profiles-cardiff.imgix.net/attachments/3056?w=200&h=200&auto=format&crop=faces&fit=crop&q=90")
Professor Robert Snowden
BSc York PhD Cantab
- Media commentator
- Available for postgraduate supervision
Teams and roles for Robert Snowden
Professor
Overview
My interests are in serious offending. I look at methods of understanding why this occurs at the cognitive and behavioural level (what are the thoughts and motivations behind these action) as well as the biological underpinnings of these behaviours.
My research mainly covers violence (including murder) and sexual violence (rape, child molestation, paedophilia, etc). I therefore have interests in concepts such as psychopaths, personality disorders and mental illness as it relates to offending and violence.
I run courses for professionals on risk assessment of violence in offenders and mentally disordered offenders.
I have an interest in human sexuality and sexual interests which include both normal interests (heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, etc) as well as deviant sexual interests (eg, paedophilia and other paraphilias).
I also conduct research of vision and visual perception and am the author of the textbook "Basic Vision" (OUP).
Publication
2025
- Caulfield, K. M. et al., 2025. The Domestic Abuse, Stalking and Harassment and Honour-Based Violence (DASH) risk assessment instrument in predicting deadly or persistent domestic abuse. Forensic Sciences 5 (4) 64. (10.3390/forensicsci5040064)
- Gray, N. S. , Pink, J. and Snowden, R. J. 2025. UPPS-P impulsivity and borderline personality disorder traits in a community sample. Psychiatry Research Communications 5 (4) 100240. (10.1016/j.psycom.2025.100240)
- Roy, S. et al., 2025. Validating a four-factor model of psychopathic personality from the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) across community and incarcerated samples. Behavioral Sciences 15 (11) 1503. (10.3390/bs15111503)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2025. Reduction in distraction due to perceptual load: A failure to replicate. Perception 54 (12), pp.931-947. (10.1177/03010066251364203)
2024
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2024. Measuring the pupillary light reflex using portable instruments in applied settings. Vision 8 (4) 60. (10.3390/vision8040060)
- Snowden, R. J. , Gray, N. S. and Uzzell, K. S. 2024. Implicit sexual cognitions in women with ambiphilic sexual attractions: A comparison to androphilic and gynephilic women. Archives of Sexual Behavior 53 , pp.141-152. (10.1007/s10508-023-02727-y)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2024. Visual spatial attention to sexual stimuli. Current Psychology 43 , pp.27930-27943. (10.1007/s12144-024-06438-y)
- Snowden, R. J. , Midgley, P. and Gray, N. S. 2024. Automatic distraction by sexual images: Gender differences. Sexes 5 (4), pp.778-795. (10.3390/sexes5040050)
2023
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2023. Reducing sickness absence and stigma due to mental health difficulties: a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a low intensity psychological intervention and stigma reduction programme for common mental disorder (Prevail). BMC Public Health 23 (1) 1324. (10.1186/s12889-023-16200-x)
- Gray, N. S. , Davies, H. and Snowden, R. J. 2023. Reducing stigma and increasing workplace productivity due to mental health difficulties in a large government organization in the UK: a protocol for a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a low intensity psychological intervention and stigma reduction programme for common mental disorder (Prevail). BMC Public Health 20 896. (10.1186/s12889-020-09054-0)
- Knowles, J. R. et al., 2023. Mental wellbeing and psychological distress in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic: a comparison across time. Advances in Mental Health 21 (1), pp.30-42. (10.1080/18387357.2022.2039072)
- Pink, J. , Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2023. The implicit measurement of psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality 103 104339. (10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104339)
- Simkiss, N. et al., 2023. A randomised controlled trial evaluating the Guide Cymru Mental Health Literacy intervention programme in Year 9 (age 13-14) school pupils in Wales. BMC Public Health 23 1062. (10.1186/s12889-023-15922-2)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2023. Automatic attention to sexual images of men and women in androphilic, ambiphilic, and gynephilic women. Journal of Bisexuality 23 (2), pp.170-185. (10.1080/15299716.2023.2183923)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2023. Spatial attention to emotional images and psychopathic personality traits.. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 45 , pp.333-345. (10.1007/s10862-022-10012-w)
- Snowden, R. J. , Tiley, O. and Gray, N. S. 2023. The Cardiff self‐injury inventory (English version): convergent validity and psychometric properties. Health Science Reports 6 (1) e1028. (10.1002/hsr2.1028)
2022
- Docksey, A. E. et al., 2022. The stigma and self-stigma scales for attitudes to mental health problems: psychometric properties and its relationship to mental health problems and absenteeism. Health Psychology Research 10 2. (10.52965/001c.35630)
- Gray, N. S. , McKinnon, A. and Snowden, R. J. 2022. A reduction in the pupil’s response to affective sounds in psychopathy and related personality traits. Physiological Reports 10 (6) e15235. (10.14814/phy2.15235)
- Knowles, J. R. et al., 2022. The role of hope and resilience in protecting against suicidal thoughts and behaviors during the Covid-19 pandemic. Archives of Suicide Research 26 (3), pp.1487-1504. (10.1080/13811118.2021.1923599)
- Pink, J. et al., 2022. Refining the relationship between psychopathy, aggression, and rule-breaking by gender: A comparison of the Triarchic and Septarchic models of psychopathy. Personality and Individual Differences 185 111282. (10.1016/j.paid.2021.111282)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2022. Explicit and implicit self-esteem and aggression: Differential effects of agency and communion. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37 (11-12), pp.NP10036-NP10059. (10.1177/0886260520985490)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2022. Automatic processing of emotional images and psychopathic personality traits. Cognition and Emotion 36 (5), pp.821-835. (10.1080/02699931.2022.2054780)
- Walters, T. et al., 2022. Secondary school students’ perception of the online teaching experience during COVID-19: The impact on mental wellbeing and specific learning difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology 92 (3), pp.843-860. e12475. (10.1111/bjep.12475)
2021
- Amad, S. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2021. Self-esteem, narcissism, and aggression: different types of self-esteem predict different types of aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36 (23-24), pp.13296-13313. (10.1177/0886260520905540)
- Gray, N. et al., 2021. The triarchic model of psychopathy and antisocial behavior: results from an offender population with personality disorder. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36 (17-18), pp.NP9130-NP9152. (10.1177/0886260519853404)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2021. Structured professional judgment to assist the evaluation and safety planning of suicide risk: The Risk of Suicide Protocol (RoSP). Frontiers in Psychiatry 12 607120. (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.607120)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2021. Explicit and implicit hopelessness and self-injury. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 51 (3), pp.606-615. (10.1111/sltb.12743)
- Pink, J. et al., 2021. Psychological distress and resilience in first responders and health care workers during the COVID?19 pandemic. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 94 (4), pp.789-807. (10.1111/joop.12364)
- Roy, S. et al., 2021. The perils of untested assumptions in theory testing: a reply to Patrick et al. (2020). Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment 12 (1), pp.24-28. (10.1037/per0000461)
- Roy, S. et al., 2021. Triarchic or septarchic?—uncovering the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure’s (TriPM) structure. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment 12 (1), pp.1-15. (10.1037/per0000392)
- Simkiss, N. J. et al., 2021. Development and psychometric properties of the Knowledge and Attitudes to Mental Health Scales (KAMHS): a psychometric measure of Mental Health Literacy in children and adolescents. BMC Pediatrics 21 508. (10.1186/s12887-021-02964-x)
2020
- Burley, D. T. et al. 2020. Emotional modulation of the pupil in psychopathy: a test of the response modulation hypothesis. International Journal of Psychophysiology 155 , pp.168-174. (10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.06.008)
- Gray, N. S. , Davies, H. and Snowden, R. J. 2020. Reducing stigma and increasing workplace productivity due to mental health difficulties in a large government organization in the UK: A protocol for a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a low intensity psychological intervention and stigma reduction programme for common mental disorder (Prevail). BMC Public Health 20 896. (10.1186/s12889-020-09054-0)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2020. The influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental wellbeing and psychological distress: impact upon a single country. Frontiers in Psychiatry 11 594115. (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.594115)
- Hare, R. D. et al., 2020. The PCL-R and capital sentencing: a commentary on “Death is Different". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 26 (4), pp.519-522. (10.1037/law0000290)
- Mckinnon, A. I. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2020. Enhanced emotional response to both negative and positive images in post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence from pupillometry. Biological Psychology 154 107922. (10.1016/j.biopsycho.2020.107922)
- Olver, M. et al., 2020. Reliability and validity of the psychopathy checklist-revised in the assessment of risk for institutional violence: a cautionary note on DeMatteo et al. (2020). Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 26 (4), pp.490-510. (10.1037/law0000256)
- Simkiss, N. et al., 2020. Improving mental health literacy in Year 9 high school children across Wales: A protocol for a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a mental health literacy programme across an entire country.. BMC Public Health 20 727. (10.1186/s12889-020-08736-z)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2020. Sexual attraction to both genders in ambiphilic men: Evidence from implicit cognitions. Archives of Sexual Behavior 49 , pp.503-515. (10.1007/s10508-019-01552-6)
2019
- Blumenthal, S. et al., 2019. Implicit measurement of violence-related cognitions. Psychology of Violence 9 (2), pp.235-243. (10.1037/vio0000194)
- Burley, D. , Gray, N. and Snowden, R. 2019. Emotion modulation of the pupil response in psychopathy. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment. 10 (4), pp.365-375. (10.1037/per0000313)
- Gray, N. S. , Tiller, J. L. and Snowden, R. J. 2019. WARRN - A formulation-based risk assessment procedure for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS): The view of clinicians. Journal of Forensic Practice 21 (4), pp.228-239. (10.1108/JFP-06-2019-0025)
- Gray, N. S. , Weidacker, K. and Snowden, R. J. 2019. Psychopathy and impulsivity: The relationship of psychopathy to different aspects of UPPS-P impulsivity. Psychiatry Research 272 , pp.474-482. (10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.155)
- Snowden, R. et al. 2019. WARRN – a formulation-based risk assessment process: Its implementation and impact across a whole country. Journal of Mental Health Training, Education and Practice 14 (6), pp.399-410. (10.1108/JMHTEP-03-2019-0016)
- Snowden, R. et al. 2019. Pupillary responses to static images of men and women. A possible measure of sexual interest?. Journal of Sex Research 56 (1), pp.74-84. (10.1080/00224499.2017.1394959)
2017
- Burley, D. T. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2017. As far as the eye can see: Relationship between psychopathic traits and pupil response to affective stimuli. PLoS ONE 12 (1) e0167436. (10.1371/journal.pone.0167436)
- Canning, A. et al., 2017. Gender differences in the relationship between self-esteem and aggression in young people leaving care. Violence and Gender 4 (2), pp.49-54. (10.1089/vio.2017.0002)
- Snowden, R. , Smith, C. and Gray, N. S. 2017. Risk taking and the triarchic model of psychopathy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 39 (10), pp.988-1001. (10.1080/13803395.2017.1300236)
- Weidacker, K. et al., 2017. Psychopathy and impulsivity: The relationship of the triarchic model of psychopathy to different forms of impulsivity in offenders and community participants. Personality and Individual Differences 114 , pp.134-139.
- Weidacker, K. et al., 2017. Response inhibition in the parametric Go/No-Go task in psychopathic offenders. Psychiatry Research 250 , pp.256-263. (10.1016/j.psychres.2017.01.083)
2016
- Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2016. Psychopathy in women: Prediction of criminality and violence in UK and USA psychiatric patients resident in the community. Psychiatry Research 237 , pp.339-343. (10.1016/j.psychres.2016.01.014)
- Kanters, T. et al., 2016. Are child abusers sexually attracted to submissiveness? Assessment of sex-related cognition with the implicit association test. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 28 (5), pp.448-468. (10.1177/1079063214544330)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2016. The pupil's response to affective pictures: Role of image duration, habituation, and viewing mode. Psychophysiology 53 (8), pp.1217-1223. (10.1111/psyp.12668)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2016. Automatic direction of spatial attention to male versus female stimuli: a comparison of heterosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior 45 (4), pp.843-853. (10.1007/s10508-015-0678-y)
2015
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2015. The Aggression and Vulnerablility Scale (AVS) for the measurement of inpatient behaviors: A demonstration of reliability. Austin Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences 2 (3) 1045.
- Zwets, A. J. et al., 2015. Implicit attitudes toward violence and their relation to psychopathy, aggression, and socially adaptive behaviors in forensic psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 26 (5), pp.632-651. (10.1080/14789949.2015.1037331)
2013
- Craig, R. L. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2013. Recalled parental bonding, current attachment, and the triarchic conceptualisation of psychopathy. Personality and Individual Differences 55 (4), pp.345-350. (10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.012)
- Snowden, R. J. , Craig, R. L. and Gray, N. S. 2013. Detection and recognition of emotional expressions: Effects of traits of personality disorder and gender. Personality and Individual Differences 54 (2), pp.158-163. (10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.007)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2013. Implicit sexual associations in heterosexual and homosexual women and men. Archives of Sexual Behavior 42 (3), pp.475-485. (10.1007/s10508-012-9920-z)
2012
- Tales, A. et al. 2012. Intra-individual reaction time variability in aMCI: A precursor to dementia?. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 32 (2), pp.457-466. (10.3233/JAD-2012-120505)
2011
- Copestake, S. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2011. A comparison of a self-report measure of psychopathy with the psychopathy checklist-revised in a UK sample of offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 22 (2), pp.169-182. (10.1080/14789949.2010.545134)
- Fitzgerald, S. et al. 2011. Risk factors for recidivism in offenders with intellectual disabilities. Psychology, Crime & Law 17 (1), pp.43-58. (10.1080/10683160903392293)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2011. The Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START): A prospective sudy of inpatient behavior. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 10 (4), pp.305-313. (10.1080/14999013.2011.631692)
- Gray, N. S. , Taylor, J. and Snowden, R. J. 2011. Predicting violence using structured professional judgment in patients with different mental and behavioral disorders. Psychiatry Research 187 (1-2), pp.248-253. (10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.011)
- Morgan, J. E. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2011. The relationship between psychopathy and impulsivity: A multi-impulsivity measurement approach. Personality and Individual Differences 51 (4), pp.429-434. (10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.043)
- Snowden, R. J. , Craig, R. L. and Gray, N. S. 2011. Indirect behavioral measures of cognition among sexual offenders. Journal of Sex Research 48 (2-3), pp.192-217. (10.1080/00224499.2011.557750)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2011. Impulsivity and psychopathy: Associations between the Barrett Impulsivity Scale and the Psychopathy Checklist revised. Psychiatry Research 187 (3), pp.414-417. (10.1016/j.psychres.2011.02.003)
- Tales, A. et al. 2011. Visual search in mild cognitive impairment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 24 (1), pp.151-160. (10.3233/JAD-2010-101818)
- Tales, A. et al., 2011. Exogenous phasic alerting and spatial orienting in mild cognitive impairment compared to healthy ageing: study outcome is related to target response. Cortex 47 (2), pp.180-190. (10.1016/j.cortex.2009.09.007)
2010
- Cvencek, D. et al., 2010. Faking of the Implicit Association Test is statistically detectable and partly correctable. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 32 (4), pp.302-314. (10.1080/01973533.2010.519236)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2010. Implicit social cognition in forensic settings. In: Gawronski, B. and Payne, B. K. eds. Handbook of Implicit Social Cognition: Measurement, Theory, and Applications. New York: Guilford. , pp.522-534.
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2010. Temperament and character as a function of psychopathy: relationships between the Psychopathy Checklist - Revised and the Temperament and Character Inventory in a sample of personality disordered serious or repeat offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 21 (6), pp.815-833. (10.1080/14789949.2010.506617)
- Snowden, R. J. , Gray, N. S. and Taylor, J. 2010. Risk Assessment for Future Violence in Individuals from an Ethnic Minority Group. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 9 (2), pp.118-123. (10.1080/14999013.2010.501845)
2009
- Brown, A. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2009. Implicit Measurement of Sexual Associations in Child Sex Abusers: Role of Victim Type and Denial. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 21 (2), pp.166-180. (10.1177/1079063209332234)
- Freeman, T. C. A. et al. 2009. Do we have direct access to retinal image motion during smooth pursuit eye movements?. Journal of Vision 9 (1) 33. (10.1167/9.1.33)
- Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2009. The implicit association test as a measure of sexual interest. In: Thornton, D. and Laws, D. R. eds. Cognitive Approaches to the Assessment of Sexual Interest in Sexual Offenders. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. , pp.101-124.
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2009. Assessing Risk of Future Violence Among Forensic Psychiatric Inpatients With the Classification of Violence Risk (COVR). Psychiatric Services 60 (11), pp.1522-1526. (10.1176/appi.ps.60.11.1522)
2008
- Andrew, E. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2008. The relationship between trauma and beliefs about hearing voices: a study of psychiatric and non-psychiatric voice hearers. Psychological Medicine 38 (10), pp.1409-1417. (10.1017/S003329170700253X)
- Gray, N. S. , Taylor, J. and Snowden, R. J. 2008. Predicting violent reconvictions using the HCR-20. British Journal of Psychiatry 192 (5), pp.384-387. (10.1192/bjp.bp.107.044065)
- Snowden, R. J. , Wichter, J. and Gray, N. S. 2008. Implicit and explicit measurements of sexual preference in gay and heterosexual men: a comparison of priming techniques and the Implicit Association Task. Archives of Sexual Behavior 37 (4), pp.558-565. (10.1007/s10508-006-9138-z)
2007
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2007. A new continuous within-participants latent inhibition task: Examining associations with schizotypy dimensions, smoking status and gender. Biological Psychology 74 (3), pp.365-373. (10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.09.007)
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2007. Reduced P50 suppression is associated with the cognitive disorganisation dimension of schizotypy. Schizophrenia Research 97 (1-3), pp.152-162. (10.1016/j.schres.2007.07.019)
- Fitzgerald, S. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2007. A Comparison of WAIS-R and WAIS-III in the Lower IQ Range: Implications for Learning Disability Diagnosis. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 20 (4), pp.323-330. (10.1111/j.1468-3148.2006.00349.x)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2007. Predicting future reconviction in offenders with intellectual disabilities: The predictive efficacy of VRAG, PCL-SV, and the HCR-20. Psychological Assessment 19 (4), pp.474-479. (10.1037/1040-3590.19.4.474)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2007. Actuarial prediction of violent recidivism in mentally disordered offenders. Psychological Medicine 37 (11), pp.1539-1549. (10.1017/S0033291707000876)
- Walters, G. D. et al., 2007. A taxometric analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV): Further evidence of dimensionality. Psychological Assessment 19 (3), pp.330-339. (10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.330)
2006
- Snowden, R. J. and Kavanagh, E. 2006. Motion perception in the ageing visual system: Minimum motion, motion coherence, and speed discrimination thresholds. Perception 35 (1), pp.9-24. (10.1068/p5399)
- Tales, A. and Snowden, R. J. 2006. Alerting and orienting in Alzheimer's disease: Are they interdependent? Reply to Festa et al. (2006). Neuropsychology 20 (6), pp.761-762. (10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.761)
- Tales, A. et al. 2006. Alerting and orienting in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychology 20 (6), pp.752-756. (10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.752)
- Zhaoping, L. and Snowden, R. J. 2006. A theory of a saliency map in primary visual cortex (V1) tested by psychophysics of colour-orientation interference in texture segmentation. Visual Cognition 14 (4-8), pp.911-933. (10.1080/13506280500196035)
2005
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2005. Prepulse inhibition of startle and its moderation by schizotypy and smoking. Psychophysiology 42 (2), pp.223-231. (10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00280.x)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2005. An implicit test of associations between children and sex in pedophiles. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114 (2), pp.304-308. (10.1037/0021-843X.114.2.304)
- Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2005. The relevance of irrelevance to schizophrenia. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 29 (6), pp.989-999. (10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.01.006)
- Tales, A. et al. 2005. Abnormal visual search in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Neurocase 11 (1), pp.80-84. (10.1080/13554790490896974)
- Tales, A. et al. 2005. Abnormal spatial and non-spatial cueing effects in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Neurocase 11 (1), pp.85-92. (10.1080/13554790490896983)
2004
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2004. Facilitation and reduction of prepulse inhibition: Relationships to the positive and negative dimensions of psychometric schizotypy [Abstract]. Schizophrenia Research 67 (S1), pp.127-128. (10.1016/j.schres.2003.10.001)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2004. Relative efficacy of criminological, clinical and personality measures of future risk of offending in mentally disordered offenders: a comparative study of HCR-20, PCL:SV, and OGRS. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72 (3), pp.523-530. (10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.523)
- Snowden, R. J. and Freeman, T. C. A. 2004. The visual perception of motion. Current Biology 14 (19), pp.R828-R831. (10.1016/j.cub.2004.09.033)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2004. Implicit affective associations to violence in psychopathic murderers. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 15 (4), pp.620-641. (10.1080/14789940412331313377)
2003
- Freeman, T. C. A. , Sumnall, J. H. and Snowden, R. J. 2003. The extra-retinal motion aftereffect. Journal of Vision 3 (11), pp.771-779. (10.1167/3.11.11)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. Post-traumatic stress disorder caused in mentally disordered offenders by the committing of a serious violent or sexual offence. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 14 (1), pp.27-43. (10.1080/1478994031000074289)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. Forensic psychology: Violence viewed by psychopathic murderers. Nature 423 (6939), pp.497-498. (10.1038/423497a)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. Prediction of violence and self-harm in mentally disordered offenders: a prospective study of the efficacy of HCR-20, PCL-R, and psychiatric symptomology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71 (3), pp.443-451. (10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.443)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. A demonstration of within-subjects latent inhibition in the human: limitations and advantages. Behavioural Brain Research 138 (1), pp.1-8. (10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00181-X)
- Sumnall, J. H. , Freeman, T. C. A. and Snowden, R. J. 2003. Optokinetic potential and the perception of head-centred speed. Vision Research 43 (16), pp.1709-1718. (10.1016/S0042-6989(03)00254-2)
- Tales, A. et al. 2003. The effects of saliency and task difficulty on visual search performance in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia 42 (3), pp.335-345. (10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.08.002)
2002
- Ansari, E. A. , Morgan, J. E. and Snowden, R. J. 2002. Glaucoma: squaring the psychophysics and neurobiology. British Journal of Ophthalmology 86 (7), pp.823-826. (10.1136/bjo.86.7.823)
- Ansari, E. A. , Morgan, J. E. and Snowden, R. J. 2002. Psychophysical characterisation of early functional loss in glaucoma and ocular hypertension. British Journal of Ophthalmology 86 (10), pp.1131-1135. (10.1136/bjo.86.10.1131)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2002. Which schizotypal dimensions abolish latent inhibition?. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 41 (3), pp.271-284. (10.1348/014466502760379136)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2002. The partial reinforcement extinction effect in humans: effects of schizophrenia, schizotypy and low doses of amphetamine. Behavioural Brain Research 133 (2), pp.333-342. (10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00019-0)
- Snowden, R. J. 2002. Visual attention to color: parvocellular guidance of attentional resources?. Psychological Science 13 (2), pp.180-184. (10.1111/1467-9280.00433)
- Tales, A. et al. 2002. Phasic visual alertness in Alzheimer's disease and ageing. NeuroReport 13 (18), pp.2557-2560.
- Tales, A. et al. 2002. Spatial shifts in visual attention in normal ageing and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neuropsychologia 40 (12), pp.2000-2012. (10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00057-X)
2001
- Ansari, E. A. , Morgan, J. E. and Snowden, R. J. 2001. Diffuse loss of contrast sensitivity in early glaucoma [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 42 (4), pp.S559.
- Doyle, M. C. and Snowden, R. J. 2001. Identification of visual stimuli is improved by accompanying auditory stimuli: The role of eye movements and sound location. Perception 30 (7), pp.795-810. (10.1068/p3126)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2001. Context dependent latent inhibition in adult humans. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology 54 (3), pp.233-245. (10.1080/713932760)
- Snowden, R. J. 2001. Contrast gain mechanism or transient channel? Why the effects of a background pattern alter over time. Vision Research 41 (15), pp.1879-1883. (10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00110-9)
- Snowden, R. J. , Willey, J. and Muir, J. L. 2001. Visuospatial attention: the role of target contrast and task difficulty when assessing the effects of cues. Perception 30 (8), pp.983-991. (10.1068/p3068)
- White, J. L. et al., 2001. Eyes in the sky: Human factors and uninhabited air vehicles. Journal of Defence Science 6 , pp.88-94.
2000
- Blakemore, M. R. and Snowden, R. J. 2000. Textured backgrounds alter perceived speed. Vision Research 40 (6), pp.629-638. (10.1016/S0042-6989(99)00214-X)
- Brawn, P. T. and Snowden, R. J. 2000. Attention to overlapping objects: detection and discrimination of luminance changes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 26 (1), pp.342-358. (10.1037/0096-1523.26.1.342)
- Snowden, R. J. and Verstraten, F. A. J. 2000. Reply to Grunewald [Two directions at the same location?][Letter]. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (3), pp.77-78. (10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01439-4)
1999
- Blakemore, M. R. and Snowden, R. J. 1999. The effect of contrast upon perceived speed: a general phenomenon?. Perception 28 (1), pp.33-48. (10.1068/p2722)
- Brawn, P. and Snowden, R. J. 1999. Can one pay attention to a particular color?. Perception & Psychophysics 61 (5), pp.860-873. (10.3758/BF03206902)
- Snowden, R. J. 1999. Visual perception: Here's mud in your mind's eye. Current Biology 9 (9), pp.R336-R337. (10.1016/S0960-9822(99)80207-3)
- Snowden, R. J. and Edmunds, R. 1999. Colour and polarity contributions to global motion perception. Vision Research 39 (10), pp.1813-1822. (10.1016/S0042-6989(98)00201-6)
- Snowden, R. J. and Rossiter, M. C. 1999. Stereoscopic depth cues can segment motion information. Perception 28 (2), pp.193-201. (10.1068/p2735)
- Snowden, R. J. and Verstraten, F. A. J. 1999. Motion transparency: making models of motion perception transparent. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3 (10), pp.369-377. (10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01381-9)
1998
- Snowden, R. J. 1998. Shifts in perceived position following adaptation to visual motion. Current Biology 8 (24), pp.1343-1345. (10.1016/S0960-9822(07)00567-2)
- Snowden, R. J. 1998. Texture segregation and visual search: a comparison of the effects of random variations along irrelevant dimensions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 24 (5), pp.1354-1367. (10.1037/0096-1523.24.5.1354)
- Snowden, R. J. and Hammett, S. T. 1998. The effects of surround contrast on contrast thresholds, perceived contrast and contrast discrimination. Vision Research 38 (13), pp.1935-1945. (10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00379-9)
- Snowden, R. J. , Stimpson, N. and Ruddle, R. A. 1998. Speed perception fogs up as visibility drops [Letter]. Nature 392 (6675), pp.450-450. (10.1038/33049)
1997
- Snowden, R. J. and Milne, A. B. 1997. Phantom motion aftereffects - Evidence of detectors for the analysis of optic flow. Current Biology 7 (10), pp.717-722. (10.1016/S0960-9822(06)00329-0)
1996
- Snowden, R. J. and Hammett, S. T. 1996. Spatial frequency adaptation: threshold elevation and perceived contrast. Vision Research 36 (12), pp.1797-1809. (10.1016/0042-6989(95)00263-4)
- Snowden, R. J. and Milne, A. B. 1996. The effects of adapting to complex motions: position invariance and tuning to spiral motions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8 (5), pp.435-452. (10.1162/jocn.1996.8.5.435)
1995
- Hammett, S. T. and Snowden, R. J. 1995. The effect of contrast adaptation on briefly presented stimuli. Vision Research 35 (12), pp.1721-1725. (10.1016/0042-6989(94)00283-R)
- Snowden, R. J. , Hess, R. F. and Waugh, S. J. 1995. The processing of temporal modulation at different levels of retinal illuminance. Vision Research 35 (6), pp.775-789. (10.1016/0042-6989(94)00158-I)
- Snowden, R. J. , Ullrich, D. and Bach, M. 1995. Isolation and characteristics of a steady-state visually-evoked potential in humans related to the motion of a stimulus. Vision Research 35 (10), pp.1365-1373. (10.1016/0042-6989(95)98716-M)
Articles
- Amad, S. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2021. Self-esteem, narcissism, and aggression: different types of self-esteem predict different types of aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36 (23-24), pp.13296-13313. (10.1177/0886260520905540)
- Andrew, E. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2008. The relationship between trauma and beliefs about hearing voices: a study of psychiatric and non-psychiatric voice hearers. Psychological Medicine 38 (10), pp.1409-1417. (10.1017/S003329170700253X)
- Ansari, E. A. , Morgan, J. E. and Snowden, R. J. 2001. Diffuse loss of contrast sensitivity in early glaucoma [Abstract]. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 42 (4), pp.S559.
- Ansari, E. A. , Morgan, J. E. and Snowden, R. J. 2002. Glaucoma: squaring the psychophysics and neurobiology. British Journal of Ophthalmology 86 (7), pp.823-826. (10.1136/bjo.86.7.823)
- Ansari, E. A. , Morgan, J. E. and Snowden, R. J. 2002. Psychophysical characterisation of early functional loss in glaucoma and ocular hypertension. British Journal of Ophthalmology 86 (10), pp.1131-1135. (10.1136/bjo.86.10.1131)
- Blakemore, M. R. and Snowden, R. J. 1999. The effect of contrast upon perceived speed: a general phenomenon?. Perception 28 (1), pp.33-48. (10.1068/p2722)
- Blakemore, M. R. and Snowden, R. J. 2000. Textured backgrounds alter perceived speed. Vision Research 40 (6), pp.629-638. (10.1016/S0042-6989(99)00214-X)
- Blumenthal, S. et al., 2019. Implicit measurement of violence-related cognitions. Psychology of Violence 9 (2), pp.235-243. (10.1037/vio0000194)
- Brawn, P. and Snowden, R. J. 1999. Can one pay attention to a particular color?. Perception & Psychophysics 61 (5), pp.860-873. (10.3758/BF03206902)
- Brawn, P. T. and Snowden, R. J. 2000. Attention to overlapping objects: detection and discrimination of luminance changes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 26 (1), pp.342-358. (10.1037/0096-1523.26.1.342)
- Brown, A. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2009. Implicit Measurement of Sexual Associations in Child Sex Abusers: Role of Victim Type and Denial. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 21 (2), pp.166-180. (10.1177/1079063209332234)
- Burley, D. , Gray, N. and Snowden, R. 2019. Emotion modulation of the pupil response in psychopathy. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment. 10 (4), pp.365-375. (10.1037/per0000313)
- Burley, D. T. et al. 2020. Emotional modulation of the pupil in psychopathy: a test of the response modulation hypothesis. International Journal of Psychophysiology 155 , pp.168-174. (10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.06.008)
- Burley, D. T. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2017. As far as the eye can see: Relationship between psychopathic traits and pupil response to affective stimuli. PLoS ONE 12 (1) e0167436. (10.1371/journal.pone.0167436)
- Canning, A. et al., 2017. Gender differences in the relationship between self-esteem and aggression in young people leaving care. Violence and Gender 4 (2), pp.49-54. (10.1089/vio.2017.0002)
- Caulfield, K. M. et al., 2025. The Domestic Abuse, Stalking and Harassment and Honour-Based Violence (DASH) risk assessment instrument in predicting deadly or persistent domestic abuse. Forensic Sciences 5 (4) 64. (10.3390/forensicsci5040064)
- Copestake, S. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2011. A comparison of a self-report measure of psychopathy with the psychopathy checklist-revised in a UK sample of offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 22 (2), pp.169-182. (10.1080/14789949.2010.545134)
- Craig, R. L. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2013. Recalled parental bonding, current attachment, and the triarchic conceptualisation of psychopathy. Personality and Individual Differences 55 (4), pp.345-350. (10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.012)
- Cvencek, D. et al., 2010. Faking of the Implicit Association Test is statistically detectable and partly correctable. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 32 (4), pp.302-314. (10.1080/01973533.2010.519236)
- Docksey, A. E. et al., 2022. The stigma and self-stigma scales for attitudes to mental health problems: psychometric properties and its relationship to mental health problems and absenteeism. Health Psychology Research 10 2. (10.52965/001c.35630)
- Doyle, M. C. and Snowden, R. J. 2001. Identification of visual stimuli is improved by accompanying auditory stimuli: The role of eye movements and sound location. Perception 30 (7), pp.795-810. (10.1068/p3126)
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2007. A new continuous within-participants latent inhibition task: Examining associations with schizotypy dimensions, smoking status and gender. Biological Psychology 74 (3), pp.365-373. (10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.09.007)
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2004. Facilitation and reduction of prepulse inhibition: Relationships to the positive and negative dimensions of psychometric schizotypy [Abstract]. Schizophrenia Research 67 (S1), pp.127-128. (10.1016/j.schres.2003.10.001)
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2005. Prepulse inhibition of startle and its moderation by schizotypy and smoking. Psychophysiology 42 (2), pp.223-231. (10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00280.x)
- Evans, L. H. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2007. Reduced P50 suppression is associated with the cognitive disorganisation dimension of schizotypy. Schizophrenia Research 97 (1-3), pp.152-162. (10.1016/j.schres.2007.07.019)
- Fitzgerald, S. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2007. A Comparison of WAIS-R and WAIS-III in the Lower IQ Range: Implications for Learning Disability Diagnosis. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 20 (4), pp.323-330. (10.1111/j.1468-3148.2006.00349.x)
- Fitzgerald, S. et al. 2011. Risk factors for recidivism in offenders with intellectual disabilities. Psychology, Crime & Law 17 (1), pp.43-58. (10.1080/10683160903392293)
- Freeman, T. C. A. et al. 2009. Do we have direct access to retinal image motion during smooth pursuit eye movements?. Journal of Vision 9 (1) 33. (10.1167/9.1.33)
- Freeman, T. C. A. , Sumnall, J. H. and Snowden, R. J. 2003. The extra-retinal motion aftereffect. Journal of Vision 3 (11), pp.771-779. (10.1167/3.11.11)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2015. The Aggression and Vulnerablility Scale (AVS) for the measurement of inpatient behaviors: A demonstration of reliability. Austin Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences 2 (3) 1045.
- Gray, N. et al., 2021. The triarchic model of psychopathy and antisocial behavior: results from an offender population with personality disorder. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36 (17-18), pp.NP9130-NP9152. (10.1177/0886260519853404)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2023. Reducing sickness absence and stigma due to mental health difficulties: a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a low intensity psychological intervention and stigma reduction programme for common mental disorder (Prevail). BMC Public Health 23 (1) 1324. (10.1186/s12889-023-16200-x)
- Gray, N. S. , Davies, H. and Snowden, R. J. 2020. Reducing stigma and increasing workplace productivity due to mental health difficulties in a large government organization in the UK: A protocol for a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a low intensity psychological intervention and stigma reduction programme for common mental disorder (Prevail). BMC Public Health 20 896. (10.1186/s12889-020-09054-0)
- Gray, N. S. , Davies, H. and Snowden, R. J. 2023. Reducing stigma and increasing workplace productivity due to mental health difficulties in a large government organization in the UK: a protocol for a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a low intensity psychological intervention and stigma reduction programme for common mental disorder (Prevail). BMC Public Health 20 896. (10.1186/s12889-020-09054-0)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2021. Structured professional judgment to assist the evaluation and safety planning of suicide risk: The Risk of Suicide Protocol (RoSP). Frontiers in Psychiatry 12 607120. (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.607120)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2021. Explicit and implicit hopelessness and self-injury. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 51 (3), pp.606-615. (10.1111/sltb.12743)
- Gray, N. S. , McKinnon, A. and Snowden, R. J. 2022. A reduction in the pupil’s response to affective sounds in psychopathy and related personality traits. Physiological Reports 10 (6) e15235. (10.14814/phy2.15235)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2020. The influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental wellbeing and psychological distress: impact upon a single country. Frontiers in Psychiatry 11 594115. (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.594115)
- Gray, N. S. , Pink, J. and Snowden, R. J. 2025. UPPS-P impulsivity and borderline personality disorder traits in a community sample. Psychiatry Research Communications 5 (4) 100240. (10.1016/j.psycom.2025.100240)
- Gray, N. S. et al., 2024. Measuring the pupillary light reflex using portable instruments in applied settings. Vision 8 (4) 60. (10.3390/vision8040060)
- Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2016. Psychopathy in women: Prediction of criminality and violence in UK and USA psychiatric patients resident in the community. Psychiatry Research 237 , pp.339-343. (10.1016/j.psychres.2016.01.014)
- Gray, N. S. , Taylor, J. and Snowden, R. J. 2008. Predicting violent reconvictions using the HCR-20. British Journal of Psychiatry 192 (5), pp.384-387. (10.1192/bjp.bp.107.044065)
- Gray, N. S. , Tiller, J. L. and Snowden, R. J. 2019. WARRN - A formulation-based risk assessment procedure for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS): The view of clinicians. Journal of Forensic Practice 21 (4), pp.228-239. (10.1108/JFP-06-2019-0025)
- Gray, N. S. , Weidacker, K. and Snowden, R. J. 2019. Psychopathy and impulsivity: The relationship of psychopathy to different aspects of UPPS-P impulsivity. Psychiatry Research 272 , pp.474-482. (10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.155)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2011. The Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START): A prospective sudy of inpatient behavior. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 10 (4), pp.305-313. (10.1080/14999013.2011.631692)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2005. An implicit test of associations between children and sex in pedophiles. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114 (2), pp.304-308. (10.1037/0021-843X.114.2.304)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. Post-traumatic stress disorder caused in mentally disordered offenders by the committing of a serious violent or sexual offence. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 14 (1), pp.27-43. (10.1080/1478994031000074289)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2002. Which schizotypal dimensions abolish latent inhibition?. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 41 (3), pp.271-284. (10.1348/014466502760379136)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2007. Predicting future reconviction in offenders with intellectual disabilities: The predictive efficacy of VRAG, PCL-SV, and the HCR-20. Psychological Assessment 19 (4), pp.474-479. (10.1037/1040-3590.19.4.474)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. Forensic psychology: Violence viewed by psychopathic murderers. Nature 423 (6939), pp.497-498. (10.1038/423497a)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. Prediction of violence and self-harm in mentally disordered offenders: a prospective study of the efficacy of HCR-20, PCL-R, and psychiatric symptomology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71 (3), pp.443-451. (10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.443)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2002. The partial reinforcement extinction effect in humans: effects of schizophrenia, schizotypy and low doses of amphetamine. Behavioural Brain Research 133 (2), pp.333-342. (10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00019-0)
- Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2005. The relevance of irrelevance to schizophrenia. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 29 (6), pp.989-999. (10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.01.006)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2004. Relative efficacy of criminological, clinical and personality measures of future risk of offending in mentally disordered offenders: a comparative study of HCR-20, PCL:SV, and OGRS. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72 (3), pp.523-530. (10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.523)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2003. A demonstration of within-subjects latent inhibition in the human: limitations and advantages. Behavioural Brain Research 138 (1), pp.1-8. (10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00181-X)
- Gray, N. S. , Taylor, J. and Snowden, R. J. 2011. Predicting violence using structured professional judgment in patients with different mental and behavioral disorders. Psychiatry Research 187 (1-2), pp.248-253. (10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.011)
- Gray, N. S. et al. 2001. Context dependent latent inhibition in adult humans. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. B: Comparative and Physiological Psychology 54 (3), pp.233-245. (10.1080/713932760)
- Hammett, S. T. and Snowden, R. J. 1995. The effect of contrast adaptation on briefly presented stimuli. Vision Research 35 (12), pp.1721-1725. (10.1016/0042-6989(94)00283-R)
- Hare, R. D. et al., 2020. The PCL-R and capital sentencing: a commentary on “Death is Different". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 26 (4), pp.519-522. (10.1037/law0000290)
- Kanters, T. et al., 2016. Are child abusers sexually attracted to submissiveness? Assessment of sex-related cognition with the implicit association test. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 28 (5), pp.448-468. (10.1177/1079063214544330)
- Knowles, J. R. et al., 2023. Mental wellbeing and psychological distress in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic: a comparison across time. Advances in Mental Health 21 (1), pp.30-42. (10.1080/18387357.2022.2039072)
- Knowles, J. R. et al., 2022. The role of hope and resilience in protecting against suicidal thoughts and behaviors during the Covid-19 pandemic. Archives of Suicide Research 26 (3), pp.1487-1504. (10.1080/13811118.2021.1923599)
- Mckinnon, A. I. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2020. Enhanced emotional response to both negative and positive images in post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence from pupillometry. Biological Psychology 154 107922. (10.1016/j.biopsycho.2020.107922)
- Morgan, J. E. , Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2011. The relationship between psychopathy and impulsivity: A multi-impulsivity measurement approach. Personality and Individual Differences 51 (4), pp.429-434. (10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.043)
- Olver, M. et al., 2020. Reliability and validity of the psychopathy checklist-revised in the assessment of risk for institutional violence: a cautionary note on DeMatteo et al. (2020). Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 26 (4), pp.490-510. (10.1037/law0000256)
- Pink, J. et al., 2021. Psychological distress and resilience in first responders and health care workers during the COVID?19 pandemic. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 94 (4), pp.789-807. (10.1111/joop.12364)
- Pink, J. , Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2023. The implicit measurement of psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality 103 104339. (10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104339)
- Pink, J. et al., 2022. Refining the relationship between psychopathy, aggression, and rule-breaking by gender: A comparison of the Triarchic and Septarchic models of psychopathy. Personality and Individual Differences 185 111282. (10.1016/j.paid.2021.111282)
- Roy, S. et al., 2025. Validating a four-factor model of psychopathic personality from the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) across community and incarcerated samples. Behavioral Sciences 15 (11) 1503. (10.3390/bs15111503)
- Roy, S. et al., 2021. The perils of untested assumptions in theory testing: a reply to Patrick et al. (2020). Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment 12 (1), pp.24-28. (10.1037/per0000461)
- Roy, S. et al., 2021. Triarchic or septarchic?—uncovering the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure’s (TriPM) structure. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment 12 (1), pp.1-15. (10.1037/per0000392)
- Simkiss, N. et al., 2023. A randomised controlled trial evaluating the Guide Cymru Mental Health Literacy intervention programme in Year 9 (age 13-14) school pupils in Wales. BMC Public Health 23 1062. (10.1186/s12889-023-15922-2)
- Simkiss, N. et al., 2020. Improving mental health literacy in Year 9 high school children across Wales: A protocol for a randomised control treatment trial (RCT) of a mental health literacy programme across an entire country.. BMC Public Health 20 727. (10.1186/s12889-020-08736-z)
- Simkiss, N. J. et al., 2021. Development and psychometric properties of the Knowledge and Attitudes to Mental Health Scales (KAMHS): a psychometric measure of Mental Health Literacy in children and adolescents. BMC Pediatrics 21 508. (10.1186/s12887-021-02964-x)
- Snowden, R. et al. 2019. WARRN – a formulation-based risk assessment process: Its implementation and impact across a whole country. Journal of Mental Health Training, Education and Practice 14 (6), pp.399-410. (10.1108/JMHTEP-03-2019-0016)
- Snowden, R. et al. 2019. Pupillary responses to static images of men and women. A possible measure of sexual interest?. Journal of Sex Research 56 (1), pp.74-84. (10.1080/00224499.2017.1394959)
- Snowden, R. , Smith, C. and Gray, N. S. 2017. Risk taking and the triarchic model of psychopathy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 39 (10), pp.988-1001. (10.1080/13803395.2017.1300236)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2022. Explicit and implicit self-esteem and aggression: Differential effects of agency and communion. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37 (11-12), pp.NP10036-NP10059. (10.1177/0886260520985490)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2020. Sexual attraction to both genders in ambiphilic men: Evidence from implicit cognitions. Archives of Sexual Behavior 49 , pp.503-515. (10.1007/s10508-019-01552-6)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2022. Automatic processing of emotional images and psychopathic personality traits. Cognition and Emotion 36 (5), pp.821-835. (10.1080/02699931.2022.2054780)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2025. Reduction in distraction due to perceptual load: A failure to replicate. Perception 54 (12), pp.931-947. (10.1177/03010066251364203)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2023. Automatic attention to sexual images of men and women in androphilic, ambiphilic, and gynephilic women. Journal of Bisexuality 23 (2), pp.170-185. (10.1080/15299716.2023.2183923)
- Snowden, R. J. , Gray, N. S. and Uzzell, K. S. 2024. Implicit sexual cognitions in women with ambiphilic sexual attractions: A comparison to androphilic and gynephilic women. Archives of Sexual Behavior 53 , pp.141-152. (10.1007/s10508-023-02727-y)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2024. Visual spatial attention to sexual stimuli. Current Psychology 43 , pp.27930-27943. (10.1007/s12144-024-06438-y)
- Snowden, R. J. , Midgley, P. and Gray, N. S. 2024. Automatic distraction by sexual images: Gender differences. Sexes 5 (4), pp.778-795. (10.3390/sexes5040050)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2023. Spatial attention to emotional images and psychopathic personality traits.. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 45 , pp.333-345. (10.1007/s10862-022-10012-w)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2016. The pupil's response to affective pictures: Role of image duration, habituation, and viewing mode. Psychophysiology 53 (8), pp.1217-1223. (10.1111/psyp.12668)
- Snowden, R. J. , Tiley, O. and Gray, N. S. 2023. The Cardiff self‐injury inventory (English version): convergent validity and psychometric properties. Health Science Reports 6 (1) e1028. (10.1002/hsr2.1028)
- Snowden, R. J. 2001. Contrast gain mechanism or transient channel? Why the effects of a background pattern alter over time. Vision Research 41 (15), pp.1879-1883. (10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00110-9)
- Snowden, R. J. 1998. Shifts in perceived position following adaptation to visual motion. Current Biology 8 (24), pp.1343-1345. (10.1016/S0960-9822(07)00567-2)
- Snowden, R. J. 1998. Texture segregation and visual search: a comparison of the effects of random variations along irrelevant dimensions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 24 (5), pp.1354-1367. (10.1037/0096-1523.24.5.1354)
- Snowden, R. J. 2002. Visual attention to color: parvocellular guidance of attentional resources?. Psychological Science 13 (2), pp.180-184. (10.1111/1467-9280.00433)
- Snowden, R. J. 1999. Visual perception: Here's mud in your mind's eye. Current Biology 9 (9), pp.R336-R337. (10.1016/S0960-9822(99)80207-3)
- Snowden, R. J. , Craig, R. L. and Gray, N. S. 2013. Detection and recognition of emotional expressions: Effects of traits of personality disorder and gender. Personality and Individual Differences 54 (2), pp.158-163. (10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.007)
- Snowden, R. J. , Craig, R. L. and Gray, N. S. 2011. Indirect behavioral measures of cognition among sexual offenders. Journal of Sex Research 48 (2-3), pp.192-217. (10.1080/00224499.2011.557750)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2016. Automatic direction of spatial attention to male versus female stimuli: a comparison of heterosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior 45 (4), pp.843-853. (10.1007/s10508-015-0678-y)
- Snowden, R. J. and Edmunds, R. 1999. Colour and polarity contributions to global motion perception. Vision Research 39 (10), pp.1813-1822. (10.1016/S0042-6989(98)00201-6)
- Snowden, R. J. and Freeman, T. C. A. 2004. The visual perception of motion. Current Biology 14 (19), pp.R828-R831. (10.1016/j.cub.2004.09.033)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2004. Implicit affective associations to violence in psychopathic murderers. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 15 (4), pp.620-641. (10.1080/14789940412331313377)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2013. Implicit sexual associations in heterosexual and homosexual women and men. Archives of Sexual Behavior 42 (3), pp.475-485. (10.1007/s10508-012-9920-z)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2011. Impulsivity and psychopathy: Associations between the Barrett Impulsivity Scale and the Psychopathy Checklist revised. Psychiatry Research 187 (3), pp.414-417. (10.1016/j.psychres.2011.02.003)
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2010. Temperament and character as a function of psychopathy: relationships between the Psychopathy Checklist - Revised and the Temperament and Character Inventory in a sample of personality disordered serious or repeat offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 21 (6), pp.815-833. (10.1080/14789949.2010.506617)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2007. Actuarial prediction of violent recidivism in mentally disordered offenders. Psychological Medicine 37 (11), pp.1539-1549. (10.1017/S0033291707000876)
- Snowden, R. J. et al. 2009. Assessing Risk of Future Violence Among Forensic Psychiatric Inpatients With the Classification of Violence Risk (COVR). Psychiatric Services 60 (11), pp.1522-1526. (10.1176/appi.ps.60.11.1522)
- Snowden, R. J. , Gray, N. S. and Taylor, J. 2010. Risk Assessment for Future Violence in Individuals from an Ethnic Minority Group. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 9 (2), pp.118-123. (10.1080/14999013.2010.501845)
- Snowden, R. J. and Hammett, S. T. 1996. Spatial frequency adaptation: threshold elevation and perceived contrast. Vision Research 36 (12), pp.1797-1809. (10.1016/0042-6989(95)00263-4)
- Snowden, R. J. and Hammett, S. T. 1998. The effects of surround contrast on contrast thresholds, perceived contrast and contrast discrimination. Vision Research 38 (13), pp.1935-1945. (10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00379-9)
- Snowden, R. J. , Hess, R. F. and Waugh, S. J. 1995. The processing of temporal modulation at different levels of retinal illuminance. Vision Research 35 (6), pp.775-789. (10.1016/0042-6989(94)00158-I)
- Snowden, R. J. and Kavanagh, E. 2006. Motion perception in the ageing visual system: Minimum motion, motion coherence, and speed discrimination thresholds. Perception 35 (1), pp.9-24. (10.1068/p5399)
- Snowden, R. J. and Milne, A. B. 1997. Phantom motion aftereffects - Evidence of detectors for the analysis of optic flow. Current Biology 7 (10), pp.717-722. (10.1016/S0960-9822(06)00329-0)
- Snowden, R. J. and Milne, A. B. 1996. The effects of adapting to complex motions: position invariance and tuning to spiral motions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 8 (5), pp.435-452. (10.1162/jocn.1996.8.5.435)
- Snowden, R. J. and Rossiter, M. C. 1999. Stereoscopic depth cues can segment motion information. Perception 28 (2), pp.193-201. (10.1068/p2735)
- Snowden, R. J. , Stimpson, N. and Ruddle, R. A. 1998. Speed perception fogs up as visibility drops [Letter]. Nature 392 (6675), pp.450-450. (10.1038/33049)
- Snowden, R. J. , Ullrich, D. and Bach, M. 1995. Isolation and characteristics of a steady-state visually-evoked potential in humans related to the motion of a stimulus. Vision Research 35 (10), pp.1365-1373. (10.1016/0042-6989(95)98716-M)
- Snowden, R. J. and Verstraten, F. A. J. 1999. Motion transparency: making models of motion perception transparent. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3 (10), pp.369-377. (10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01381-9)
- Snowden, R. J. and Verstraten, F. A. J. 2000. Reply to Grunewald [Two directions at the same location?][Letter]. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (3), pp.77-78. (10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01439-4)
- Snowden, R. J. , Wichter, J. and Gray, N. S. 2008. Implicit and explicit measurements of sexual preference in gay and heterosexual men: a comparison of priming techniques and the Implicit Association Task. Archives of Sexual Behavior 37 (4), pp.558-565. (10.1007/s10508-006-9138-z)
- Snowden, R. J. , Willey, J. and Muir, J. L. 2001. Visuospatial attention: the role of target contrast and task difficulty when assessing the effects of cues. Perception 30 (8), pp.983-991. (10.1068/p3068)
- Sumnall, J. H. , Freeman, T. C. A. and Snowden, R. J. 2003. Optokinetic potential and the perception of head-centred speed. Vision Research 43 (16), pp.1709-1718. (10.1016/S0042-6989(03)00254-2)
- Tales, A. et al. 2011. Visual search in mild cognitive impairment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 24 (1), pp.151-160. (10.3233/JAD-2010-101818)
- Tales, A. et al. 2005. Abnormal visual search in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Neurocase 11 (1), pp.80-84. (10.1080/13554790490896974)
- Tales, A. et al. 2012. Intra-individual reaction time variability in aMCI: A precursor to dementia?. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 32 (2), pp.457-466. (10.3233/JAD-2012-120505)
- Tales, A. et al. 2002. Phasic visual alertness in Alzheimer's disease and ageing. NeuroReport 13 (18), pp.2557-2560.
- Tales, A. et al. 2002. Spatial shifts in visual attention in normal ageing and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neuropsychologia 40 (12), pp.2000-2012. (10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00057-X)
- Tales, A. et al. 2003. The effects of saliency and task difficulty on visual search performance in ageing and Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia 42 (3), pp.335-345. (10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.08.002)
- Tales, A. and Snowden, R. J. 2006. Alerting and orienting in Alzheimer's disease: Are they interdependent? Reply to Festa et al. (2006). Neuropsychology 20 (6), pp.761-762. (10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.761)
- Tales, A. et al. 2006. Alerting and orienting in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychology 20 (6), pp.752-756. (10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.752)
- Tales, A. et al. 2005. Abnormal spatial and non-spatial cueing effects in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Neurocase 11 (1), pp.85-92. (10.1080/13554790490896983)
- Tales, A. et al., 2011. Exogenous phasic alerting and spatial orienting in mild cognitive impairment compared to healthy ageing: study outcome is related to target response. Cortex 47 (2), pp.180-190. (10.1016/j.cortex.2009.09.007)
- Walters, G. D. et al., 2007. A taxometric analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV): Further evidence of dimensionality. Psychological Assessment 19 (3), pp.330-339. (10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.330)
- Walters, T. et al., 2022. Secondary school students’ perception of the online teaching experience during COVID-19: The impact on mental wellbeing and specific learning difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology 92 (3), pp.843-860. e12475. (10.1111/bjep.12475)
- Weidacker, K. et al., 2017. Psychopathy and impulsivity: The relationship of the triarchic model of psychopathy to different forms of impulsivity in offenders and community participants. Personality and Individual Differences 114 , pp.134-139.
- Weidacker, K. et al., 2017. Response inhibition in the parametric Go/No-Go task in psychopathic offenders. Psychiatry Research 250 , pp.256-263. (10.1016/j.psychres.2017.01.083)
- White, J. L. et al., 2001. Eyes in the sky: Human factors and uninhabited air vehicles. Journal of Defence Science 6 , pp.88-94.
- Zhaoping, L. and Snowden, R. J. 2006. A theory of a saliency map in primary visual cortex (V1) tested by psychophysics of colour-orientation interference in texture segmentation. Visual Cognition 14 (4-8), pp.911-933. (10.1080/13506280500196035)
- Zwets, A. J. et al., 2015. Implicit attitudes toward violence and their relation to psychopathy, aggression, and socially adaptive behaviors in forensic psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 26 (5), pp.632-651. (10.1080/14789949.2015.1037331)
Book sections
- Gray, N. S. and Snowden, R. J. 2009. The implicit association test as a measure of sexual interest. In: Thornton, D. and Laws, D. R. eds. Cognitive Approaches to the Assessment of Sexual Interest in Sexual Offenders. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. , pp.101-124.
- Snowden, R. J. and Gray, N. S. 2010. Implicit social cognition in forensic settings. In: Gawronski, B. and Payne, B. K. eds. Handbook of Implicit Social Cognition: Measurement, Theory, and Applications. New York: Guilford. , pp.522-534.
Research
Research topics and related papers
Forensic and Clinical Psychology
My laboratory investigates the origins and management of severe problem behaviours. These include violence to others, sexual offending, suicide and self-harming behaviours, and trauma..
On-going projects include:
- WARRN - risk assessment for mental health services across Wales
- Prediction of suicide using the RoSP (Risk of Suicide Protocol)
- Self-esteem and aggression
- Emotional processing in personality disorders
- Implicit measurement of sex-related cognitions in normal populations (hetero and homosexual men and women)
- Impulsivity, psychopathy and personality disorders
- Perceptual sensitivity, strength of the nervous system and psychopathology
- Use of implicit measures
- Resilience training and mental health
- Reducing mental health-related stigma in schoolchildren
- Improving mental health in the workplac
Funding
ESRC
Research collaborators
All the work in the domain of Forensic and Clinical Psychology is done in collaboration with a Chartered Clinical and Forsensic psychologist (Professor Nicola Gray, Swansea University). We currently have projects with Action for Children, the DVLA, and with Gwent Police Force. We have a long-standing colloaboration with colleagues at the Portman CLinic (london) and at HMP Grendon (Oxfordshire).
Teaching
Level 1 - teach on Psychological Research.
Level 2 -Teach on Perception, Attention and Action. I give 6 lectures on visual perception.
Level 3 - module coordinato for Forensic Psychology: Violence and crime. I teach the whole module (8 lectures, 3 workshops).
Biography
Undergraduate education
York University – BSc Psychology (1985)
Postgraduate education
Cambridge University – PhD Experimental Psychology (1989)
Employment
Post-doctoral research Fellow Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Professional memberships
- Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy.
Academic positions
- Post-doctoral research fellow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Supervisions
Postgraduate research interests
My research aims to help understand, predict and manage patients with severe behavioural problems
due to mental health issues (psychopathy, personality disorders, mental illness).
The major strands of my work are:
- Prediction and prevention of future violence and sexual violence to others
- Prediction and prevention of suicide and self-harm
- Understanding motivations and cognitions underpinning severe behavioural problems through
the use of explicit and implicit methodologies - Evaluation of training programmes designed to reduce risk, trauma, and stigmatism
The research is conducted in collaboration with a clinical and forensic psychologist (Professor Nicola Gray), and has strong links to secure units, local hospitals, prisons and, community services. We are also working with professional bodies such as the police force, the ambulance service, and the DVLA.
Motion perception: including the perception of speed, and how contrast effects (e.g. fog) and light interact to alter our perception of speed; The effects of old age on the visual system; Visual processes in various conditions (glaucoma, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease).
If you are interested in applying for a PhD, or for further information regarding my postgraduate research, please contact me directly (contact details available on the 'Overview' page), or submit a formal application.
Current students
Paula Riella - The effects of resilience training on front-line police officers.
Jamie Knowles (at Swansea University) - The Risk of Suicide Protocol (RoSP): Its usage in accident and emergancy settings
NIcola SImkiss (at Swansea University) - The Guide Cymru: Testing the efficacy in a stigma reduction programme for schoolchildren. A randomised control trial across Wales.
Alys Docksey (at Swansea University) - Prevail: A programme to reduce days lost due to mental health problens. A randomised control trial of DVLA staff.
